İklim

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Dünya iklim sınıflandırması

İklim, bir yerde uzun bir süre boyunca gözlemlenen sıcaklık, nem, hava basıncı, rüzgar, yağış, yağış şekli gibi meteorolojik olayların ortalamasına verilen addır. Hava durumundan farklı olarak iklim, bir yerin meteorolojik olaylarını uzun süreler içinde gözlemler. Bir yerin iklimi o yerin enlemine, yükseltisine, yer şekillerine, kalıcı kar durumuna ve denizlere olan uzaklığına bağlıdır. İklim türleri, sıcaklık ve yağış rejimi gibi durumlara bakılarak sınıflandırılabilir. Ancak günümüzde en çok kullanılan sınıflandırma sistemi aslen Wladimir Köppen tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Thornthwaite sistemine göre,[1] 1948'den beri kullanılmaktadır.

Paleoklimatoloji ise, göl yataklarında ve buzullarda bulunan tortular gibi biyolojik olmayan ayrıca ağaç halkaları, mercanlar gibi biyolojik kaynaklarla antik iklimleri inceleyen bilim dalıdır. Bu yöntem eski dönemlerde bir yerdeki sıcaklık ve yağış rejimlerini göstermek ve inceleme yapmak için kullanılır. Bu tür çalışmaların sonunda ortaya matematiksel iklim modelleri çıkarılır ve gelecekte iklimin ne derece değişebileceği konusunda tahminler yürütülür.

Konu başlıkları

[değiştir] Tanım

İklim sözcüğünün kökeni Arapça'dan gelmiş olup yeryüzünün herhangi bir yerinde hava olaylarına bağlı olarak gerçekleşen etkilerin uzun yılların ortalamasına dayanan durumu olarak tanımlanır.[2] Bu ortalama süre yaklaşık olarak 30 yıldır.[3] Ancak yine de bu süreler duruma göre değişebilmektedir. Bunun yanında iklimin ortalama değerleri hesaplama işlevinin yanında değerlerin günlük, yıllık değişken istatistikleri de hesaba katılıp incelenmektedir.[4]

İklim ile hava durumu arasındaki fark, ise sıkça iklim beklentidir, hava durumu elde edilendir şeklinde açıklanmaktadır.[5] Tarihsel süreçte iklime etki eden etmenler enleme, yükseltiye, yer şekillerine, kalıcı kar durumuna ve denizlere olan uzaklığa bağlıdır. Ancak bazı dinamik etmenler de iklime etki etmektedir. Bu etmenlerden olan okyanus akıntıları nedeniyle Atlantik Okyanusu'nun iki kuzey yakasından batıda olan Kanada kıyılarında hava olması gerekenden daha soğukken, doğu yakasındaki Avrupa kıyıları olması gerekenden yaklaşık 5 °C (9 °F) daha sıcaktır.[6] Yine bir yerdeki bitki örtüsünün sıklığı, o bölgedeki yer katmanının daha serin olmasına neden olur.[7] Bitki örtüsünün yoğun olması bölgesel olarak yağışı arttırır. Bunun dışında sera gazlarında görülen değişiklikler dünyadaki sıcaklığı değiştirerek Küresel Isınma veya Küresel Soğuma gibi iklimsel değişiklikleri ortaya çıkarır. Bu bağlamda iklime etki eden tüm durumlar tam olarak açıklanamayan karmaşık bir sistemin parçalarıdır.[8]

[değiştir] İklim sınıflandırması

İklimi aynı rejimlerin olduğu alanlarda sınıflandırmanın birçok yolu vardır. Aslında iklimlerin sınıflandırılışı ilk kez Antik Yunanistan'da bir yerin enlemine göre kabaca yapılmıştı. Ancak çağdaş iklim sınıflandırma yöntemleri kabaca iki şekilde ayrılabilir. Bunlar kalıtımsal ve yapay yöntemler olmak üzere iki kısma ayrılır. Genetik sınıflandırmalar, farklı hava kütlelerinin arasındaki ilişkilerin sıklığı ve durumu aynı yönden ele alan bozukluklar temeli üzerine kurulu yöntemleri içerir. Yapay sınıflandırmalar ise iklim kuşaklarını, bitki örtüsü sıklığıyla ele alır.[9][10] Yapay sınıflandırmanın içerikleri ile Köppen iklim sınıflandırması arasında bir ilişki bulunur. Bu sınıflandırmada gözlemlenen en önemli kusur, aşamalı olarak gösterilmesi uygun olan iklim kuşaklarında açtığı farklı sınırlardır.

[değiştir] Bergeron ve Spatial Synoptic

Source regions of global air masses

Şablon:Main article

The most generic classification is that involving the concept of air masses. The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification. Air mass classification involves three letters. The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used for continental air masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its source region: T for tropical, P for polar, A for Arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for equatorial, and S for superior air (dry air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere). The third letter is used to designate the stability of the atmosphere. If the air mass is colder than the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it, it is labeled w.[11] While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during the 1950s, climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973.[12]

Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the Spatial Synoptic Classification system (SSC). There are six categories within the SSC scheme: Dry Polar (similar to continental polar), Dry Moderate (similar to maritime superior), Dry Tropical (similar to continental tropical), Moist Polar (similar to maritime polar), Moist Moderate (a hybrid between maritime polar and maritime tropical), and Moist Tropical (similar to maritime tropical, maritime monsoon, or maritime equatorial).[13]

[değiştir] Köppen

Monthly average surface temperatures from 1961–1990. This is an example of how climate varies with location and season

Şablon:Main article

The Köppen classification includes climate regimes such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.

Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between Şablon:Convert/mm and Şablon:Convert/mm. Mean monthly temperatures exceed Şablon:Convert/C during all months of the year.[14]

A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months, ushering in a region's rainy season.[15] Regions within North America, South America. Sub-Saharan Africa, Australia and East Asia are monsoon regimes.[16]

A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with average temperatures remain at or above Şablon:Convert/C year round and rainfall between Şablon:Convert/mm and Şablon:Convert/mm a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia.[17]

The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.[18] Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator.[19]

Humid continental climate worldwide

A humid continental climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large seasonal temperature variance. Places with a hottest monthly temperature above Şablon:Convert/C and a coldest month temperature below Şablon:Convert/C and which do not meet the criteria for an arid climate, are classified as continental.[20]

An oceanic climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world's continents, and in southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year round.[21]

The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.[22]

A steppe is a dry grassland with an annual temperature range in the summer of up to Şablon:Convert/C and during the winter down to Şablon:Convert/C.[23]

A subarctic climate has little precipitation,[24] and monthly temperatures which are above Şablon:Convert/C for one to three months of the year, with continuous permafrost due to the very cold winters. Winters within subarctic climates include up to six months of temperatures averaging below Şablon:Convert/C.[25]

Map of arctic tundra

Tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere, north of the taiga belt, including vast areas of northern Russia and Canada [26].

A polar ice cap, or polar ice sheet, is a high-latitude region of a planet or moon that is covered in ice. Ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less energy in the form of solar radiation from the sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures.[27]

A desert is a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation. Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high daytime temperatures (in summer up to 45 °C or 113 °F), and low night-time temperatures (in winter down to 0 °C; 32 °F) due to extremely low humidity. Many deserts are formed by rain shadows, as mountains block the path of moisture and precipitation to the desert.[28]

[değiştir] Thornthwaite

Daha çok bilgi için: Microthermal, Mesothermal ve Megathermal
Precipitation by month

This climate classification method monitors the soil water budget using the concept of evapotranspiration.[10] It monitors the portion of total precipitation used to nourish vegetation over a certain area.[29] It uses indices such as a humidity index and an aridity index to determine an area's moisture regime based upon its average temperature, average rainfall, and average vegetation type.[30] The lower the value of the index is any given area, the drier the area is.

The moisture classification includes climatic classes with descriptors such as hyperhumid, humid, subhumid, subarid, semi-arid (values of -20 to -40), and arid (values below -40).[31] Humid regions experience more precipitation than evaporation each year, while arid regions experience greater evaporation than precipitation on an annual basis. A total of 33 percent of the Earth's landmass is considered either arid of semi-arid, including southwest North America, southwest South America, most of northern and a small part of southern Africa, southwest and portions of eastern Asia, as well as much of Australia.[32] Studies suggest that precipitation effectiveness (PE) within the Thornthwaite moisture index is overestimated in the summer and underestimated in the winter.[33] This index can be effectively used to determine the number of herbivore and mammal species numbers within a given area.[34] The index is also used in studies of climate change.[33]

Thermal classifications within the Thornthwaite scheme include microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal regimes. A mircothermal climate is one of low annual mean temperatures, generally between Şablon:Convert/C and Şablon:Convert/C which experiences short summers and has a potential evaporation between Şablon:Convert/cm and Şablon:Convert/cm.[35] A mesothermal climate lacks persistent heat or persistent cold, with potential evaporation between Şablon:Convert/cm and Şablon:Convert/cm.[36] A megathermal climate is one with persistent high temperatures and abundant rainfall, with potential evaporation in excess of Şablon:Convert/cm.[37]

[değiştir] Record

[değiştir] Modern

Instrumental temperature record of the last 150 years

Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such weather instruments as thermometers, barometers, and anemometers during the past few centuries. The instruments used to study weather conditions over the modern time scale, their known error, their immediate environment, and their exposure have changed over the years, which must be considered when studying the climate of centuries past.[38]

[değiştir] Paleoclimatology

Şablon:Main article

Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth's history. It uses evidence from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, coral, and rocks to determine the past state of the climate. It demonstrates periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether changes follow patterns such as regular cycles.[39]

[değiştir] Climate change

Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the past 450,000 years

Şablon:Seealso

Climate change refers to the variation in the Earth's global climate or in regional climates over time. It describes changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities.[40]

In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming. In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations.[41]

Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major ice ages. These consisting of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo, reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases, such as by volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial. Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and vulcanism.[42]

[değiştir] Climate models

Şablon:Seealso

Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere,[43] oceans, land surface and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the earth. Any imbalance results in a change in the average temperature of the earth.

The most talked-about models of recent years have been those relating temperature to the build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (see greenhouse gas). These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex:

  • A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy
  • this can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally
  • finally, (coupled) atmosphere–ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.[44]

[değiştir] See also

Şablon:WeatherPortal

[değiştir] References

  1. ^ C. W. Thornthwaite, "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate", Geographical Review, 38:55-94, 1948
  2. ^ "Climate". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-14. 
  3. ^ Climate averages. Met Office. 2008-05-17 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
  4. ^ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Appendix I: Glossary. 2007-06-01 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
  5. ^ National Weather Service Office Tucson, Arizona. Main page. 2007-06-01 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
  6. ^ Stefan Rahmstorf. The Thermohaline Ocean Circulation: A Brief Fact Sheet. 2008-05-02 tarihinde erişildi.
  7. ^ Gertjan de Werk and Karel Mulder. Heat Absorption Cooling For Sustainable Air Conditioning of Households. 2008-05-02 tarihinde erişildi.
  8. ^ Ledley, T.S.; Sundquist, E.T.; Schwartz, S.E.; Hall, D.K.; Fellows, J.D.; Killeen, T.L. (1999). "Climate change and greenhouse gases". EOS 80 (39): 453. doi:10.1029/99EO00325. http://www.agu.org/eos_elec/99148e.html. Erişim tarihi 2008-05-17. 
  9. ^ United States National Arboretum. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. 2008-03-09 tarihinde erişildi.
  10. ^ a b "Thornethwaite Moisture Index". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. 
  11. ^ "Airmass Classification". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-22. 
  12. ^ Schwartz, M.D. (1995). "Detecting Structural Climate Change: An Air Mass-Based Approach in the North Central United States, 1958-1992". Annals of the Association of American Geographers 85 (3): 553–568. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1995.tb01812.x. 
  13. ^ Robert E. Davis, L. Sitka, D. M. Hondula, S. Gawtry, D. Knight, T. Lee, and J. Stenger. J1.10 A preliminary back-trajectory and air mass climatology for the Shenandoah Valley (Formerly J3.16 for Applied Climatology). Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
  14. ^ Susan Woodward. Tropical Broadleaf Evergreen Forest: The Rainforest. Retrieved on 2008-03-14.
  15. ^ "Monsoon". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-14. 
  16. ^ International Committee of the Third Workshop on Monsoons. The Global Monsoon System: Research and Forecast. Retrieved on 2008-03-16.
  17. ^ Susan Woodward. Tropical Savannas. Retrieved on 2008-03-16.
  18. ^ "Humid subtropical climate". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2008). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2008-05-14. 
  19. ^ Michael Ritter. Humid Subtropical Climate. Retrieved on 2008-03-16.
  20. ^ Peel, M. C. and Finlayson, B. L. and McMahon, T. A. (2007). "Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification". Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 11: 1633–1644. ISSN 1027-5606. http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.html. 
  21. ^ Climate. Oceanic Climate. Retrieved on 2008-04-15.
  22. ^ Michael Ritter. Mediterranean or Dry Summer Subtropical Climate. Retrieved on 2008-04-15.
  23. ^ Blue Planet Biomes. Steppe Climate. Retrieved on 2008-04-15.
  24. ^ Michael Ritter. Subarctic Climate. Retrieved on 2008-04-16.
  25. ^ Susan Woodward. Taiga or Boreal Forest. Retrieved on 2008-06-06.
  26. ^ Şablon:Cite web kullanımında hata: Parametreler url ve başlık tanımlanmalı.
  27. ^ Michael Ritter. Ice Cap Climate. Retrieved on 2008-03-16.
  28. ^ San Diego State University. Introduction to Arid Regions: A Self-Paced Tutorial. Retrieved on 2008-04-16.
  29. ^ "Moisture Index". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. 
  30. ^ Eric Green. Foundations of Expansive Clay Soil. Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
  31. ^ Istituto Agronomico per l'Otremare. 3 Land Resources. Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
  32. ^ Fredlund, D.G.; Rahardjo, H. (1993) (pdf). Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0471850083. OCLC 26543184. http://www.soilvision.com/subdomains/unsaturatedsoil.com/Docs/chapter1UST.pdf. Erişim tarihi 2008-05-21. 
  33. ^ a b Gregory J. McCabe and David M. Wolock. Trends and temperature sensitivity of moisture conditions in the conterminous United States. Retrieved on 2008-05-21.
  34. ^ Hawkins, B.A.; Pausas, J.G. (2004). "Does plant richness influence animal richness?: the mammals of Catalonia (NE Spain)". Diversity & Distributions 10 (4): 247–252. doi:10.1111/j.1366-9516.2004.00085.x. http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1741&context=postprints. Erişim tarihi 2008-05-21. 
  35. ^ "Microthermal Climate". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. 
  36. ^ "Mesothermal Climate". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. 
  37. ^ "Megathermal Climate". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. 
  38. ^ Spencer Weart. The Modern Temperature Trend. Retrieved on 2007-06-01.
  39. ^ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOAA Paleoclimatology. Retrieved on 2007-06-01.
  40. ^ Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. Climate change. Retrieved on 2008-05-19.
  41. ^ Şablon:Cite web kullanımında hata: Parametreler url ve başlık tanımlanmalı.
  42. ^ Illinois State Museum (2002). Ice Ages. Retrieved on 2007-05-15.
  43. ^ Eric Maisonnave. Climate Variability. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
  44. ^ Climateprediction.net. Modelling the climate. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.

[değiştir] External links

Şablon:Meteorological variables

Şablon:Koppen

Şablon:Nature nav

[değiştir] Dünya'da görülen iklim tipleri

Dünya üzerinde görülen iklim tipleri:

  • Ekvatoral İklim
  • Savan İklimi
  • Kutup İklimi
  • Çöl İklimi
  • Okyanusal İklim
  • Karasal İklim
  • Tundra İklimi (Kutupaltı İklim) = Soğuk İklim
  • Akdeniz İklimi = Ilık İklim
  • Muson İklimi = Sıcak İklim
  • Karadeniz iklimi

[değiştir] Türkiye'de İklim Çeşitleri

Türkiye'de görülen indirgenmiş sıcaklık dağılımı.
Türkiye'de İklim Dağılımı

Türkiye’de üç ana iklim tipi görülür:

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