Kullanıcı:Bambi'nin annesi/deneme1

Gramer

Bu bölümdeki gramer bilgileri de ağırlıklı olarak Halha Moğolcasına dayanmaktadır. Fonoloji bölümünden farklı olarak, bu bölümde biçimbilim ve sözdizim hakkındaki bilgilerin çoğu Çahar Moğolcası için de geçerlidir; ancak Horçin Moğolcası bu konularda nispeten daha fazla çeşitlilik göstermektedir.

Soru cümleleri

Moğolcada bir sorunun sorulduğunu göstermek için bir soru belirticisi kullanılır. Evet/hayır soruları ve bilgi soruları için kullanılan soru belirticileri birbirinden farklıdır. Evet/hayır soru cümlesini kurarken eğer son sözcük kısa ünlü veya ünsüz ile biterse önceki sözcükle ünlü uyumu gösterecek şekilde уу veya үү belirticileri kullanılır. Eğer son sözcük uzun ünlü veya çift ünlü ile biterse gene de ünlü uyumu gösterecek şekilde юу veya юү belirticileri kullanılır. Kim, ne, ne zaman, nerede, neden vs. gibi bilgi soruları için önceki sözcükteki en son sese uyum sağlayan şekilde вэ veya бэ soru belirticileri kullanılır.

1. Evet/Hayır Soru Belirticileri -уу/үү/юу/юү (uu/üü/yuu/yuü)
2. Açık Uçlu Soru Belirticileri -бэ/вэ (be/ve)

Temel soru zamirleri -юу (yuu; 'ne'), -хаана (khaana; 'nerede'), хэн (khen; 'kim'), яагаад (yaagaad; 'neden'), яаж (yaaj; 'nasıl'), хэзээ (khezee; 'ne zaman'), ямар (yamar; 'ne/ne biçim')

Verbs

In Mongolian, verbs have a stem and an ending. For example, Moğolca: бай, Moğolca: сур, and Moğolca: үзэ are the stems and take the following endings: Moğolca: х, Moğolca: ах, and Moğolca: х respectively: Moğolca: байx, Moğolca: сурax, and Moğolca: үзэx. These are the infinitive or dictionary forms. The present/future tense is formed by adding either Moğolca: на, Moğolca: но, Moğolca: нэ, or Moğolca: нө to the stem. These do not change for different pronouns, so Moğolca: сурна (I/you/he/she/we/you all/they study) will always be Moğolca: сурна. Moğolca: байна is the present/future tense verb for to be. Moğolca: уншина is to read. Moğolca: үзнэ is to see. The final vowel is barely pronounced and is not pronounced at all if the word after begins with a vowel, so Moğolca: сайн байна уу is pronounced sain bain uu.

1. Past Tense -Moğolca: сан/сон/сэн/сөн (san/son/sen/sön)
2. Informed Past Tense (any point in past) -Moğolca: в (v)
3. Informed Past Tense (not long ago) -Moğolca: лаа/лоо/лээ/лөө (laa/loo/lee/löö)
4. Non-Informed Past Tense (generally a slightly to relatively more distant past) -Moğolca: жээ/чээ (jee/chee)
5. Present Perfect Tense -Moğolca: даг/дог/дэг/дөг (dag/dog/deg/dög)
6. Present Progressive Tense -Moğolca: ж/ч байна (j/ch baina)
7. (Reflective) Present Progressive Tense -Moğolca: аа/оо/ээ/өө (aa/oo/ee/öö)
8. Simple Present Tense -Moğolca: на/но/нэ/нө (na/no/ne/nö)
9. Simple Future -Moğolca: х (+болно) (kh (+bolno))
10. Infinitive Tense -Moğolca: х (kh)

Negatif cümle

Moğolcada negatif cümle kurmanın birçok yöntemi var. Örneğin:

1. биш (biş) – 'olmak' fiilinin negatif şeklidir (байх baikh) – биш 'değil/değiller' anlamına gelir.
2. -гүй (güi). Bu fiilere eklenen bir son ektir, örneğin явах (yavakh – gidiyor/gidecek) oluyor явахгүй (yavakhgüi – gitmiyor/gitmeyecek).
3. үгүй (ügüi), Moğolcada 'hayır' veya 'yok' anlamlarına gelir
4. битгий (bitgii) olumsuz emir kibinde kullanılır, örneğin битгий яваарай (bitgii yavaarai – gitme!)
5. бүү (büü), битгий sözcüğünün sizli çekimidir.

Morphology

Modern Mongolian is an agglutinative, almost exclusively suffixing language, the only exception being reduplication. Mongolian also does not have gendered nouns, or definite articles like "the". Most of the suffixes consist of a single morpheme. There are many derivational morphemes. For example, the word bajguullagynh consists of the root baj- 'to be', an epenthetic -g-, the causative -uul- (hence 'to found'), the derivative suffix -laga that forms nouns created by the action (like -ation in 'organisation') and the complex suffix –ynh denoting something that belongs to the modified word (-yn would be genitive).

Nominal compounds are quite frequent. Some derivational verbal suffixes are rather productive, e.g. jar'- 'to speak', jarilts- 'to speak with each other'. Formally, the independent words derived using verbal suffixes can roughly be divided into three classes: final verbs, which can only be used sentence-finally, i.e. -na (mainly future or generic statements) or –ø (second person imperative); participles (often called "verbal nouns"), which can be used clause-finally or attributively, i.e. -san (perfect-past) or -maar ('want to'); and converbs, which can link clauses or function adverbially, i.e. -ž (qualifies for any adverbial function or neutrally connects two sentences) or -tal (the action of the main clause takes place until the action expressed by the suffixed verb begins).

Roughly speaking, Mongolian has eight cases: nominative (unmarked), genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, instrumental, comitative and directional. If a direct object is definite, it must take the accusative, while it must take the nominative if it is unspecific. In addition to case, a number of postpositions exist that usually govern genitive, ablative, or comitative case or a form of the nominative that has sometimes -Vn either for lexical historical reasons or analogy (thus maybe becoming an attributive case suffix). Nouns can take reflexive-possessive clitics indicating that the marked noun is possessed by the subject of the sentence: bi najz(-)aa avarsan I friend-reflexive-possessive save-perfect 'I saved my friend'. However, there are also somewhat noun-like adjectives to which case suffixes seemingly cannot be attached directly unless there is ellipsis.

Mongolian noun cases

Case	Suffix	English prep.	Example	Translation
nominative	–	–	nom	book
accusative	-g/iig(г/ийг)	–	nomiig	book (as object)
genitive	-n (н), -ii (ы), -ii (ий), -iin (ийн), -iin (ын), -giin (гийн)	of/'s	nomiin	of (a) book, book's
dative/locative	-d (д), -ad (ад), -t (т)	on, to, at, in	nomd	in (a) book
ablative	long vowel + -s (с)	from	nomoos	from (a) book
instrumental	long vowel + -r (р)	with	nomoor	with (e.g. by means of a) book
comitative	-t–i, dependent on vowel, e.g. -toi, -tei, etc. (тай, той, тэй)	with	nomtoi	with (e.g. alongside a) book

Nominative case

The nominative case is used when a noun (or other part of speech acting as one) is the subject of the sentence, and the agent of whatever action (not just physically) takes place in the sentence. In Mongolian, nominative case does not have an ending.

Accusative case

The accusative case is used when a noun acts as a Direct Object (Or just “object”), and receives action from a transitive verb. It is formed by adding one of the following endings: -ийг(iig), -ыг(iig), -г(g)

Genitive case

The genitive case is used to show possession of something. It is formed by adding one of the following endings: -н (n) -ы (i) -ий (ii) -ийн (iin) -ын (in) -гийн (giin). For example:

1. -н (n) is added to all words which end with a diphthong or ий (ii).
2. -ы (i) is added to back vowel words ending in -н (n).
3. -ий (ii) is added to front vowel words ending in н (n).
4. -ийн (iin) is added to front vowel words ending in short vowels or consonants (except those ending in н), and to back vowel words ending in ж, ч, ш, г, ь, и, and the short vowel will be dropped.
5. -ын (in) is added to all other back vowel words ending with short vowels or other consonants (except those ending in н).
6. -гийн (giin) is added to all front and back vowel word ending with long vowels.

Dative/locative case

The dative/locative case used to show the location of something. It is formed by adding one of the following endings to the stem of a word: -д (d), -ад (ad), -ид (id), -т (t). For example:

1. -д (d) is added to words ending in a vowel, or -м, -н. -л.
2. -ад (ad) is added to words ending in -д, -з, -ц, -с. -т, -х.
3. -ид (id) is added to words ending in -ш or -ч.
4. -т (t) is added to words ending in -р, -г, or -с (only when -c has a vowel before it).

Plurals

Source: Plurality may be left unmarked, but there are overt plurality markers, some of which are restricted to humans. A noun that is modified by a numeral usually does not take any plural affix.

There are four ways of forming plurals in Mongolian:

1. Some plurals are formed by adding noːd or -nuːd (нууд or нүүд - nuud or nüüd). If the last vowel of the previous word is a (a), o (y), or ɔ (o), then -noːd (нууд) is used. For example, харx (kharkh - rat) becomes xapхнууд (kharkhnuud - rats). If the last vowel of the previous word is e (э), ʊ (ө), ü (ү), or i (и) then -nuːd (нүүд) is used: for example, нүд (eye) becomes нүднүүд (eyes - nüdnüüd).
2. In other plurals, just -oːd or -uːd is added with no "n" included. For example, хот (city - khot) becomes хотууд (cities - khotuud), and ээж (mother - eej) becomes ээжүүд (mothers - eejüüd).
3. Another way of forming plurals is adding -nar. For example, багш (teacher - bagsh) becomes багш нар (teachers - bagsh nar).
4. The final way is an irregular form used: хүн (khün - person) becomes хүмүүс (khümüüs - people).

Personal pronouns exist for the first and second person, while the old demonstrative pronouns have come to form third person (proximal and distal) pronouns. Other word (sub-)classes include interrogative pronouns, conjunctions (which take participles), spatials, and particles, the last being rather numerous.

Personal Pronouns

	1st sg.	2nd sg.	3rd sg.	1st pl.	2nd pl.	3rd pl.
Nominative (subject)	Би (bi)	Чи (chi) Та (ta) (formal)	Тэр (ter)	Бид (bid)	Та Нар (ta nar)	Тэд Нар (ted nar)
Accusative (object)	Намайг (namaig)	Чамайг (chamaig) Таныг (tanaig)(formal)	Түүнийг (tüüniig)	Биднийг (bidniig)	–	Тэднийг (tedniig)
Genitive (possession)	Миний (minii)	Чиний (chinii) Таны (tanii) (formal)	Түүний (tüünii)	Бидний (bidnii) Манай (manai) (excl.)	Танай/Та Нарын (Tanai/Ta Napriin)	Тэд Нарын (ted nariin)
Oblique stem (used for all other cases)	Над- (nad-)	Чам- (cham-)	–	Бидн- (bidn-) Ман- (man-) (excl.)	Тан- (tan-)	–

Negation is mostly expressed by -güi (-гүй) after participles and by the negation particle bish after nouns and adjectives; negation particles preceding the verb (for example in converbal constructions) exist, but tend to be replaced by analytical constructions.

Syntax

Differential case marking

Mongolian uses differential case marking, being a regular Differential Object Marking (DOM) language. DOM emerges from a complicated interaction of factors such as referentiality, animacy and topicality.

Mongolian also exhibits a specific type of Differential Subject Marking (DSM), in which the subjects of embedded clauses (including adverbial clauses) occur with accusative case.

Phrase structure

The noun phrase has the order: demonstrative pronoun/numeral, adjective, noun. Attributive sentences precede the whole NP. Titles or occupations of people, low numerals indicating groups, and focus clitics are put behind the head noun. Possessive pronouns (in different forms) may either precede or follow the NP. Examples:

bid-nij	uulz-san	ter	sajhan	zaluu-gaas	č
we-genitive	meet-perfect	that	beautiful	young.man-ablative	focus
'even from that beautiful young man that we have met'

Dorž	bagš	maan'
Dorj	teacher	our
'our teacher Dorj'

The verbal phrase consists of the predicate in the center, preceded by its complements and by the adverbials modifying it and followed (mainly if the predicate is sentence-final) by modal particles, as in the following example with predicate bičsen:

ter	hel-eh-güj-geer	üün-ijg	bič-sen	šüü
s/he	without:saying	it-accusative	write-perfect	particle
's/he wrote it without saying [so] [i.e. without saying that s/he would do so, or that s/he had done so], I can assure you.'

In this clause the adverbial, helehgüjgeer 'without saying [so]' must precede the predicate's complement, üünijg 'it-accusative' in order to avoid syntactic ambiguity, since helehgüjgeer is itself derived from a verb and hence an üünijg preceding it could be construed as its complement. If the adverbial was an adjective such as hurdan 'fast', it could optionally immediately precede the predicate. There are also cases in which the adverb must immediately precede the predicate.

For Khalkha, the most complete treatment of the verbal forms is Luvsanvandan (ed.) 1987. However, the analysis of predication presented here, while valid for Khalkha, is adapted from the description of Khorchin by Matsuoka 2007.

Most often, of course, the predicate consists of a verb. However, there are several types of nominal predicative constructions, with or without a copula. Auxiliaries that express direction and aktionsart (among other meanings) can with the assistance of a linking converb occupy the immediate postverbal position, e.g. uuž orhison drink-converb leave-perfect 'drank up'. The next position is filled by converb suffixes in connection with the auxiliary, baj- 'to be', e.g. ter güjž bajna s/he run-converb be-nonpast 'she is running'. Suffixes occupying this position express grammatical aspect, e.g., progressive and resultative. In the next position, participles followed by baj- may follow, e.g., ter irsen bajna s/he come-perfect be-nonpast 'he has come'. Here, an explicit perfect and habituality can be marked, which is aspectual in meaning as well. This position may be occupied by multiple suffixes in a single predication, and it can still be followed by a converbal Progressive. The last position is occupied by suffixes that express tense, evidentiality, modality, and aspect.

Clauses

Unmarked phrase order is subject–object–predicate. While the predicate generally has to remain in clause-final position, the other phrases are free to change order or to wholly disappear. The topic tends to be placed clause-initially, new information rather at the end of the clause. Topic can be overtly marked with bol, which can also mark contrastive focus, overt additive focus ('even, also') can be marked with the clitic č, and overt restrictive focus with the clitic l ('only').

The inventory of voices in Mongolian consists of passive, causative, reciprocal, plurative, and cooperative. In a passive sentence, the verb takes the suffix -gd- and the agent takes either dative or instrumental case, the first of which is more common. In the causative, the verb takes the suffix -uul-, the causee (the person caused to do something) in a transitive action (e.g., 'raise') takes dative or instrumental case, and the causee in an intransitive action (e.g., 'rise') takes accusative case. Causative morphology is also used in some passive contexts:

Bi	tüün-d	huurt-san
I	that.one-dative	fool-causative-perfect
'I was fooled by her/him'.

The semantic attribute of animacy is syntactically important: thus the sentence, 'the bread was eaten by me', which is acceptable in English, would not be acceptable in Mongolian. The reciprocal voice is marked by -ld-, the plurative by -tsgaa-, and the cooperative by -lts-.

Mongolian allows for adjectival depictives that relate to either the subject or the direct object, e.g. Ljena nücgen untdag 'Lena sleeps naked', while adjectival resultatives are marginal.

Complex sentences

One way to conjoin clauses is to have the first clause end in a converb, as in the following example using the converb -bol:

bid	üün-ijg	ol-bol	čam-d	ög-nö
we	it-accusative	find-conditional.converbal.suffix	you.familiar-dative	give-future
'if we find it we'll give it to you'

Some verbal nouns in the dative (or less often in the instrumental) function very similar to converbs: e.g., replacing olbol in the preceding sentence with olohod find-imperfective-dative yields 'when we find it we'll give it to you'. Quite often, postpositions govern complete clauses. In contrast, conjunctions take verbal nouns without case:

jadar-san	učraas	unt-laa
become.tired-perfect	because	sleep-witnessed;past
'I slept because I was tired'

Finally, there is a class of particles, usually clause-initial, that are distinct from conjunctions but that also relate clauses:

bi olson,	harin čamd	ögöhgüj
I find-perfect	but you-dative	give-imperfective-negation
'I've found it, but I won't give it to you'.

Mongolian has a complementizer auxiliary verb ge- very similar to Japanese to iu. ge- literally means 'to say' and in converbal form gež precedes either a psych verb or a verb of saying. As a verbal noun like gedeg (with n' or case) it can form a subset of complement clauses. As gene it may function as an evidentialis marker.

Mongolian clauses tend to be combined paratactically, which sometimes gives rise to sentence structures which are subordinative despite resembling coordinative structures in European languages:

ter	ir-eed	namajg	üns-sen
that.one	come-converb	I.accusative	kiss-perfect
'S/he came and kissed me.'

In the subordinate clause the subject, if different from the subject of main clause, sometimes has to take accusative or genitive case. There is marginal occurrence of subjects taking ablative case as well. Subjects of attributive clauses in which the head has a function (as is the case for all English relative clauses) usually require that if the subject is not the head, then it take the genitive, e.g. tüünij idsen hool that.one-genitive eat-perfect meal 'the meal that s/he had eaten'.