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{{diğer anlamı|Bit}}
{{diğer anlamı|Bit}}
{{Takso kutusu

{{Taksokutu
| renk = pink
| ad = Phthiraptera
| ad = Phthiraptera
| resim = Fahrenholzia pinnata.JPG
| resim = Fahrenholzia pinnata.JPG
| image_width = 200px
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Light micrograph of ''[[Fahrenholzia pinnata]]''
| resim_bilgi = [[Mikrograf|Işıklı mikrograf]] altında ''[[Fahrenholzia pinnata]]''
| alem = [[Animalia]]
| alem = [[Hayvanlar]]
| şube = [[Arthropoda]]
| şube = [[Eklem bacaklılar]]
| sınıf = [[Insecta]]
| sınıf = [[Böcek]]ler
| altsınıf = [[Pterygota]]
| altsınıf = [[Kanatlı böcek]]
| infraclassis = [[Neoptera]]
| infratakım = [[Gelişmiş böcek]]
| üsttakım= [[Ekzopterigot]]
| takım = '''Phthiraptera'''
| takım= '''Phthiraptera'''
| takım_yazar = [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], 1896
| infratakım_yazar = [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], 1896
| altbaşlık = Altbölümler
| subdivision_ranks = Alttakımlar
| açıklama =
| altbölüm =
[[Anoplura]]<br />
[[Anoplura]]<br />
[[Haematomyzus|Rhyncophthirina]]<br />
[[Haematomyzus|Rhyncophthirina]]<br />
22. satır: 21. satır:
}}
}}


'''Bit''' (çoğul: '''bitler''') yaklaşık olarak Phthiraptera [[Takım (biyoloji)|takımından]], 5.000 türü bulunan kanatsız [[böcek]]lerdir. Bitler [[tek delikliler]], [[pangolin]]ler, [[yarasa]]lar ve [[Balinalar|memeli deniz hayvanları]] dışındaki her tür [[kuşlar]] ve [[memeliler]]de [[konakçı|yaşayabilen]] sıcakkanlı [[zorunlu parazit]]lerdir. Bitler [[tifüs]] gibi hastalıkların [[Taşıyıcı (epidemiyoloji)|taşıyıcısıdırlar]].
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== Classification ==
The order has traditionally been divided into two suborders; the [[sucking lice]] (Anoplura) and [[chewing lice]] (Mallophaga), however, recent classifications suggest that the Mallophaga are [[paraphyletic]] and four suborders are now recognised:


Bitler ev sahibinin tüyleri ya da kıllar arasında yaşarlar ve cilt üzerinde çiğneyerek beslenirler. Bitler ev sahibinin cildini emerek deler ve ortaya çıkan kan ile diğer salgıları, artıkları yiyerek beslenirler. Genellikle bütün hayatlarını tek bir ev sahibesi üzerinde geçirirler ve sirke adıyla da bilinen bit yumurtalarını kıllara veya tüylere yapıştırırlar. Yumurtaların içindeki [[Nimfa (biyoloji)|nimfa]] tamamen yetişkin olmadan önce üç defa tüy dökerler ki, tüm bu süreç yaklaşık olarak dört hafta sürer.
* [[Anoplura]]: [[sucking]] lice, including head and pubic lice (see also [[Pediculosis]] or [[Head lice]])
* [[Haematomyzus|Rhyncophthirina]]: parasites of elephants and [[warthog]]s
* [[Ischnocera]]: avian lice
* [[Amblycera]]: [[chewing]] lice, a primitive order of lice
* [[Amblycera]]: [[Jumping]] Lice have very strong hind legs and can jump a distance of three feet


İnsanlar üzerinde konaklayabilen üç tür bit bulunmaktadır. Bunlar [[baş biti]], [[vücut biti]] ve [[kasık biti]]dir. Vücut biti bilinen herhangi bir böceğin en küçük [[genom]]una sahiptir. Bu nedenle [[model canlı]] olarak sıkça kullanılmış ve çokça araştırılmıştır.
It has been suggested that the order is contained by the Troctomorpha suborder of [[Psocoptera]].
-->


Bitler en azından [[Orta Çağ]]a kadar tüm insan topluluklarında bulunmuştur. Halk hikayelerinde, ''The Kilkenny Louse House'' gibi şarkılarda ve [[James Joyce]]'un ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' adlı romanında bile söz edilmiştir. Genellikle bu tür alanlarda kendilerine psikiyatrik bozukluk olan [[sanrısal parazitoz]]unda yer bulmuşlardır. Bit, [[mikroskop|mikroskobinin]] ilk konularından biriydi ve [[Robert Hooke]]'un 1665 yılında yayımladığı ''[[Micrographia]]'' kitabında böcekten söz edilmişti.
'''Bit''' (Phthiraptera), [[Eklembacaklılar]] (''Arthropoda'') şubesinin, [[böcekler]] (''Insecta'') sınıfının bir takımı. Bitlerde [[metamorfoz]] (biçim ve yapı değişmeleri) bulunmaz. Yumurtadan ('''sirke''') çıkan yavrular ('''yavşak'''), ergine benzerler. Kanatları yoktur. Kuşlarda yaşayanlara ''ısıran bitler'' denir. Her kuş türüne musallat olan bir iki bit türü vardır. Memelilerde asalak olarak yaşayanlar; insanlar, [[maymunlar]], [[toynaklı memeliler]] (at, koyun, sığır vs.), [[kemiriciler]] (tavşanlar, fareler vs.), etçil memelilerden bazıları (köpek, kurt, morslar) üzerinde barınırlar. İnsanlar üzerinde yaşayan bitler üç türlüdür:


== Sınıflandırma ==
Bitler kopan deri parçaları, deriden salgılanan yağ ve bazen kan ile beslenirler. Bitin yumurtası sirke adını alır ve bitin tükrüğünden salgılanan yapışkan bir madde ile saça yapışır. Özel ilaçlı şampuanlar ve ince taraklar olmadan saçtan kopartılamaz. Bitler ortalama bir hafta yaşarlar.
Phthiraptera sınıfı üyeleri, [[sıcakkanlı]] omurgalı hayvanlar üzerindeki parazitliliği ve tek bir ventral sinir kavşağı oluşturmak için metatorasik gangliyonlarının, karınsal [[gangliyon]]ları ile kombinasyonu da dahil olmak üzere anlaşılır bir şekilde [[monofili|monofiletik]] gruplandırılmıştır. <ref name=Ax>{{cite book|author=Ax, Peter |title=Multicellular Animals: Volume II: The Phylogenetic System of the Metazoa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x7vtCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 |year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-662-10396-8 |pages=303–307 }}</ref> Sıralamada geleneksel olarak emici bitler (Anoplura) ve [[çiğneme|çiğneyici]] bitler (Mallophaga) olarak iki bölüme ayrılmışlardır. Bununla birlikte en son sınıflandırmalarda Mallophaga'nın [[parafili|parafiletik]] olduğunu ve şu anda dör alt sınıfının daha bulunduğunu göstermektedir:<ref name=info>{{cite web |url=http://phthiraptera.info/ |title=Phthiraptera.info |author=Smith, Vince |publisher=International Society of Phthirapterists |accessdate=25 Ekim 2015}}</ref>


* [[Anoplura]]: sadece memelilerde meydana gelen emici bit
;[[Baş biti]] (''Pediculus humanus capitis''): 2–3&nbsp;mm boyunda olup, insanların başında yaşar. Dişisi halk arasında sirke denilen yumurtalarını özellikle ense ve kulak arkası saç kıllarının diplerine kitin kılıfı ile tek tek yapıştırır. Yavrular 2-3 haftada ergin hale gelirler. Fazla yaygın bir türdür. Çocuklara okullardan bulaşabilir.
* [[Haematomyzus|Rhynchophthirina]]: yaban domuzları ve fillerdeki parazitler
* [[Ischnocera]]: çoğunlukla çiğneyici bit ancak memelilerdeki bir parazit ailesi
* [[Amblycera]]: çiğneyen bitin bir alt sınıfı ancak kuşlarda ve Güney Amerika ile Avustralya'daki memelilerde yaşarlar


4.000 türü kuşlardaki ve 800 türü ise memelilerdeki parazitler olmak üzere yaklaşık 5.000 türü tespit edilmiştir. Evcil hayvanlar ve kuşların bulunduğu tüm habitatlarda her kıtada bit bulunur. <ref name=info/> Hatta [[Antarktik]]'teki [[penguen]]lerde bile 15 türü (Austrogonoides ve Nesiotinus cinsinde) tespit edilmiştir. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Jonathan C. |last2=Paterson|first2=Adrian M. |title=A penguin-chewing louse (Insecta : Phthiraptera) phylogeny derived from morphology |journal=Invertebrate Systematics |date=2004 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=89–100 |doi=10.1071/IS03022 |url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/IS03022.htm}}</ref>
;[[Kıl biti]] (''Phthirius pubis''): Baş hariç, vücudun sakal, göğüs gibi diğer kıllı yerlerinde barınır. Gri ve beyaz tonlarında renge sahiplerdir. Yumurtalarını kıl diplerine bırakırlar. Yumurtalar toplu iğne ucu kadar ve siyah renktedirler. Ergin bitler ise kıl diplerine gömülüdür. Fazla kaşınmaya sebep olur. 1 ilâ 1,5&nbsp;mm uzunluktadır.


<gallery mode=nolines>
;[[Elbise biti]] (''Pediculus vestimenti''): Vücudun tüysüz veya az tüylü yerlerinde yaşadığından ''vücut biti'' de denir. 3–4&nbsp;mm boyundadır. Yumurtalarını çamaşırların kıvrımlı yerlerine yapıştırır. [[Tifüs]] hastalığını yaydığından çok tehlikeli bir asalaktır. Tifüs mikrobu bitin barsağında çoğalıp dışkısı ile insana bulaşır.
File:Ricinus bombycillae (Denny, 1842).JPG|''Ricinus bombycillae'', [[bayağı ipekkuyruk]]tan alınmış bir Amblyceran biti
File:Trinoton anserinum (Fabricius, 1805).JPG|''Trinoton anserinum'', [[sessiz kuğu]]dan alınmış bir Amblyceran biti
File:Lice image01.jpg|''Damalinia limbata'' bir [[keçiden]] alınmış ve erkeğin dişiden daha küçük [[seksüel dimorfizm]]inin görüldüğü bit.
</gallery>


== Tanımlama ==
Bitki özünü emen [[yaprak biti|yaprak bitleri]] hayvansal bitlerden ayrıdır.
Emici bitler boyları 0,5 ila 5 mm (0,02 ila 0,20 inç) arasında değişen küçük, kanatsız böceklerdir. Dar başları ve oval düzleşmiş gövdeleri vardır. Hiçbirisinde [[omurgasızlarda basit göz|ocelli]] (basit göz-pigment çukuru) yoktur ve bileşik gözleri ya küçük ya da eksiktir. [[Duyarga|Antenleri]] üç ila beş kısa bölüm halindedir ve başlarına geri çekilebilen ağız parçaları delme ile emmeye uyarlanmıştır. <ref name=Capinera/> Bağırsağının başlangıcında cibarial pompa olup, başın üst derisinin içine eklenen kaslar tarafından güçlendirilmektedir. Ağzının parçaları dişli bir hortumdan oluşmuştur ve bu hortumun içi keskin silindir şeklinde tükürük kanalı ([[Vücut bölgeleri|ventral]]) ve bir beslenme kanalı ([[Vücut bölgeleri|dorsal]]) olarak düzenlenmiştir. <ref name=GullanCranston>{{cite book|last1=Gullan |first1=P. J. |last2=Cranston |first2=P. S. |title=The Insects: An Outline of Entomology |date=2014 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-84615-5 |pages=41–42}}</ref> Göğsünün bölümleri kaynaşmış, karın bölümleri ayrılmış ve altı bacağının her birinin ucunda büyük bir pençe vardır. <ref name=Capinera>{{cite book|author=Capinera, John L. |title=Encyclopedia of Entomology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i9ITMiiohVQC&pg=PA838 |year=2008 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4020-6242-1 |pages=838–844}}</ref>


Çiğneyici bitler de yassıdır ve uzunlukları 0,5 ila 6 mm (0,02 ila 0,24 inç) arasında değişmekte olup diğer tür bitlerden biraz daha büyük olabilirler. Vücut yapıları emici bitlere benzer ancak başları göğüslerinden daha kalındır ve tüm türlerde gözler bileşiktir. Hiçbir şekilde basit göz (ocelli) yoktur ve ağzının bölümleri çiğnemek için uyarlanmıştır. Duyargaları yani antenleri yine üç ila beş arasında bölümden oluşmakta olup [[Ischnocera ]] alt sınıfında biraz daha ince [[Amblycera]] alt sınıfında ise çomak şeklinde biçimlidir. Bacaklar kısa ve sağlam olmakla birlikte bir ya da iki pençe ile son bulurlar. Bunların birçok türü her bir ev sahibi türe özgü olup onunla birlikte gelişmişlerdir. Genellikle [[kriptik]] (saklanma) olarak yaşadıkları ev sahiplerinin tüy ya da postunun rengine uyacak şekilde renklidirler.<ref name=Capinera/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://phthiraptera.info/classification/23 |title=Phthiraptera: Summary |author=Smith, Vince |publisher=Phthiraptera.info |accessdate=25 Ekim 2015}}</ref>
Ağaç kabukları, taş ve kitaplar arasında yaşayan [[kitap bitleri]] (''Psocoptera'') de ayrı bir grup olup ağız yapıları çiğneyici tiptedir. Bunlar kitap yaprağı, [[yosun]], [[mantar]] ve [[polen]] (çiçek tozu) ile beslenir. Kanatlı ve kanatsız olanları vardır.


== Resimler ==
== Biyoloji ==
Lice are divided into two groups: sucking lice, which obtain their nourishment from feeding on the [[Sebaceous gland|sebaceous secretions]] and body fluids of their host; and chewing lice, which are [[scavenger]]s, feeding on [[skin]], fragments of feathers or hair, and debris found on the host's body. Most are found on only specific types of animals, and, in some cases, on only a particular part of the body; some animals are known to host up to fifteen different species, although one to three is typical for mammals, and two to six for birds. For example, in humans, different species of louse inhabit the scalp and pubic hair. Lice generally cannot survive for long if removed from their host.<ref name=IIBD>{{cite book |author1=Hoell, H.V. |author2=Doyen, J.T. |author3=Purcell, A.H. |year=1998 |title=Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity |edition=2nd |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |pages= 407–409|isbn= 0-19-510033-6}}</ref> Some species of chewing lice house [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] bacteria in [[bacteriocyte]]s in their bodies. These may assist in digestion because if the insect is deprived of them, it will die. If their host dies, lice can opportunistically use [[Phoresis (biology)|phoresis]] to hitch a ride on a fly and attempt to find a new host.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ecology and Evolution of Transmission in Feather-feeding Lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera)|author=University of Utah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUfFjqPoQTEC&pg=PA83 |year=2008 |publisher=ProQuest |isbn=978-0-549-46429-7 |pages=83–87}}</ref>
<gallery>
Resim:Pthirus pubis - crab louse.jpg| Kıl biti (''Pthirus pubis'')
Resim:Lice image01.jpg|''Damalinia limbata'' [[Ankara keçisi]]nde bulunur. Dişi (sol) ve erkek (sağ).
Image:Louse_diagram,_Micrographia,_Robert_Hooke,_1667.jpg|Bir bit çizimi, [[Robert Hooke]], 1667.
Image:Trichodectes canis.jpg|''Trichodectes canis'', köpek biti
</gallery>


A louse's color varies from pale beige to dark gray; however, if feeding on blood, it may become considerably darker. Female lice are usually more common than males, and some species are [[parthenogenesis|parthenogenetic]], with young developing from unfertilized eggs. A louse's [[egg]] is commonly called a nit. Many lice attach their eggs to their hosts' hair with specialized [[saliva]]; the saliva/hair bond is very difficult to sever without specialized products. Lice inhabiting birds, however, may simply leave their eggs in parts of the body inaccessible to [[Personal grooming|preening]], such as the interior of feather shafts. Living louse eggs tend to be pale whitish, whereas dead louse eggs are yellower.<ref name=IIBD/>
{{commonscat|Phthiraptera}}


Lice are [[Exopterygota|exopterygote]]s, being born as miniature versions of the adult, known as [[nymph (biology)|nymphs]]. The young moult three times before reaching the final adult form, usually within a month after hatching.<ref name=IIBD/>
[[Kategori:Bitler| ]]


==Ecology==
[[ca:Poll]]

[[eml:Piôc']]
The average number of lice per host tends to be higher in large-bodied bird species than in small ones.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rózsa | year = | title = Patterns in the abundance of avian lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera, Ischnocera) | url = http://www.zoologia.hu/list/patterns%20in%20the%20abundance.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Journal of Avian Biology | volume = 28 | issue = | pages = 249–254 | doi=10.2307/3676976}}</ref> Lice have an aggregated distribution across bird individuals, i.e. most lice live on a few birds, while most birds are relatively free of lice. This pattern is more pronounced in territorial than in colonial—more social—bird species.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rékási J | year = 1997 | title = Patterns in the distribution of avian lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera, Ischnocera) | url = http://www.zoologia.hu/list/patterns%20in%20the%20distribution.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Journal of Avian Biology | volume = 28 | issue = | pages = 150–156 | doi=10.2307/3677308|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
[[ht:Pou]]
Host organisms that dive under water to feed on aquatic prey harbor fewer taxa of lice.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Felső B | year = 2006 | title = Reduced taxonomic richness of lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) in diving birds | url = http://www.zoologia.hu/list/felso_rozsa.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Journal of Parasitology | volume = 92 | issue = | pages = 867–869 | doi=10.1645/ge-849.1|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Felső B | year = 2007 | title = Diving behaviour reduces genera richness of lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) of mammals | url = http://www.zoologia.hu/list/felso_rozsa2.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Acta Parasitologica | volume = 52 | issue = | pages = 82–85 | doi=10.2478/s11686-007-0006-3|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
Bird taxa that are capable of exerting stronger antiparasitic defense—such as stronger [[T cell]] immune response or larger [[uropygial gland]]s—harbor more taxa of Amblyceran lice than others.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Møller AP | year = 2005 | title = Parasite biodiversity and host defenses: Chewing lice and immune response of their avian hosts | url = http://www.zoologia.hu/list/Moller_Rozsa_Oecologia.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Oecologia | volume = 142 | issue = | pages = 169–176 | doi=10.1007/s00442-004-1735-8|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Møller AP | year = 2010 | title = Ectoparasites, uropygial glands and hatching success in birds | url = http://www.zoologia.hu/list/Moller%20et%20al%202010.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Oecologia | volume = 163 | issue = | pages = 303–311 | doi=10.1007/s00442-009-1548-x | pmid=20043177|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
Reductions in the size of host populations may cause a long-lasting reduction of louse taxonomic richness,<ref name=Rozsa1993>{{cite journal | author = Rózsa | year = | title = Speciation patterns of ectoparasites and "straggling" lice | url = http://www.zoologia.hu/list/straggling.pdf | format = PDF | journal = International Journal for Parasitology | volume = 23 | issue = | pages = 859–864 | doi=10.1016/0020-7519(93)90050-9}}</ref> for example, birds introduced into [[New Zealand]] host fewer species of lice there than in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Paterson AM | year = 1999 | title = How Frequently Do Avian Lice Miss the Boat? Implications for Coevolutionary Studies | url = http://sysbio.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/48/1/214.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Systematic Biology | volume = 48 | issue = | pages = 214–223 | doi=10.1080/106351599260544|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = MacLeod C | year = 2010 | title = Parasites lost – do invaders miss the boat or drown on arrival? | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01446.x/abstract | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 13| issue = | pages = 516–527| doi = 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01446.x |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
Louse sex ratios are more balanced in more social hosts and more female-biased in less social hosts, presumably due to the stronger isolation among louse subpopulations (living on separate birds) in the latter case.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rózsa L | year = 1996 | title = Relationship of host coloniality to the population ecology of avian lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) | url = http://www.zoologia.hu/list/relationship%20of%20host%20coloniality.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Journal of Animal Ecology | volume = 65 | issue = | pages = 242–248 | doi=10.2307/5727|display-authors=etal}}</ref> The extinction of a species results in the extinction of its host-specific lice. Host-switching is a random event that would seem very rarely likely to be successful, but [[speciation]] has occurred over evolutionary time-scales so it must be successfully accomplished sometimes.<ref name=Rozsa1993/>

Lice may reduce host life expectancy if the infestation is heavy,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Brown CR | year = 1995 | title = Ectoparasites reduce long-term surviviorship of their avian host | url = http://www.rannala.org/reprints/1995/Brown1995a.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B | volume = 262 | issue = | pages = 313–319 | doi=10.1098/rspb.1995.0211|display-authors=etal}}</ref> but most seem to have little effect on their host. The habit of dust bathing in [[Chicken|domestic hens]] is probably an attempt by the birds to rid themselves of lice.<ref name=Capinera/> Lice may transmit microbial diseases and [[helminth]] parasites,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Barlett, C.M. |year=1993 |title=Lice (''Amblycera'' and ''Ischnocera'') as vectors of ''Eulimdana'' spp. (Nematoda: Filarioidea) in Charadriiform birds and the necessity of short reproductive periods in adult worms |journal=Journal of Parasitology |volume=75 |pages=85–91 |jstor=3283282 |doi=10.2307/3283282}}</ref> but most individuals spend their whole life cycle on a single host and are only able to transfer to a new host opportunistically.<ref name=Capinera/>
Ischnoceran lice may reduce the [[thermoregulation]] effect of the plumage; thus heavily infested birds lose more heat than others.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Booth DT | year = 1993 | title = Experimental demonstration of the energetic cost of parasitism in free-ranging hosts | url = http://darwin.biology.utah.edu/PubsHTML/PDF-Files/18.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B | volume = 253 | issue = | pages = 125–129 | doi=10.1098/rspb.1993.0091|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
Lice infestation is a disadvantage in the context of sexual rivalry.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Clayton | year = | title = Mate choice in experimentally parasitized rock doves: lousy males lose | url = http://darwin.biology.utah.edu/PubsHTML/PDF-Files/11.pdf | format = PDF | journal = American Zoologist | volume = 30 | issue = | pages = 251–262 | doi=10.1093/icb/30.2.251}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Garamszegi LZ | year = 2005 | title = Age-dependent health status and song characteristics | url = http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/16/3/580 | journal = Behavioral Ecology | volume = 16 | issue = | pages = 580–591 | doi=10.1093/beheco/ari029|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

The human body louse ''Pediculus humanus humanus'' had its [[genome]] sequenced in 2010, and at that time it had the smallest insect genome known.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kirkness, Ewen F.; et al. |year=2010 |title=Genome sequences of the human body louse and its primary endosymbiont provide insights into the permanent parasitic lifestyle |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=107 |issue=27 |pages=12168–12173 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1003379107 }}</ref> This louse can transmit certain diseases while the human head louse (''P. h. capitis''), to which it is closely related, cannot. With their simple life history and small genomes, the pair make ideal [[model organism]]s to study the [[Molecular biology|molecular mechanisms]] behind the transmission of [[pathogen]]s and [[Vector (epidemiology)|vector]] [[Natural competence|competence]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pittendrigh, Barry R. |author2=Berenbaum, May R. |author3=Seufferheld, Manfredo J. |author4=Margam, Venu M. |author5=Strycharz, Joseph P. |author6=Yoon, Kyong S. |author7=Sun, Weilin |author8=Reenan, Robert |author9=Lee, Si Hyeock |author10=Clark, John M. |year=2011 |title=Simplify, simplify: Lifestyle and compact genome of the body louse provide a unique functional genomics opportunity |journal=Communicative and Integrative Biology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=188–191 |doi=10.4161/cib.4.2.14279 }}</ref> In 2015 there were 5 cases of louse-borne relapsing fever being transmitted to locals reported in Italy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lucchini |first1=Anna |title=Louseborne Relapsing Fever among East African Refugees |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |date=2016 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=298–301 |doi=10.3201/eid2202.151768}}</ref>

==Interaction with humans==

===Prehistory===
{{about||information about human infestation|Pediculosis|information on treatment|Treatment of human head lice}}
[[File:Nissenkamm-01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[Comb#Nit comb|louse (nit) comb]]]]
Humans host three different kinds of lice: [[Head louse|head lice]], [[body louse|body lice]], and [[Crab louse|pubic lice]]. Lice infestations can be controlled with [[Nit comb|lice combs]], and medicated shampoos or washes.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Mumcuoglu, Kosta Y. |year=1999 |title=Prevention and Treatment of Head Lice in Children |journal=Pediatric Drugs |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=211–218 |doi=10.2165/00128072-199901030-00005 |pmid=10937452}}</ref>

Lice have been the subject of significant [[DNA]] research in the 2000s that led to discoveries on human evolution. The three species of sucking lice that parasitize human beings belong to two genera, ''Pediculus'' and ''Phthirus'': head lice (''Pediculus humanus capitis''), body lice (''Pediculus humanus corporis''), and pubic lice (''Phthirus pubis''). Human head and body lice (genus ''Pediculus'') share a common ancestor with chimpanzee lice, while pubic lice (genus ''Phthirus'') share a common ancestor with gorilla lice. Using phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analysis, Reed et al. hypothesized that ''Pediculus'' and ''Phthirus'' are sister taxa and monophyletic.<ref name="Reed D.L. 2007"/> In other words, the two genera descended from the same common ancestor. The age of divergence between ''Pediculus'' and its common ancestor is estimated to be 6-7 million years ago, which matches the age predicted by [[Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor|chimpanzee-hominid divergence]].<ref name="Reed D.L. 2007"/> Because parasites rely on their hosts, host-parasite cospeciation events are likely.

For example, genetic evidence suggests that our human ancestors acquired pubic lice from [[gorilla]]s approximately 3-4 million years ago.<ref name="Reed D.L. 2007">{{cite journal |title=Pair of lice lost or parasites regained: the evolutionary history of anthropoid primate lice |author1=Reed D.L. |author2=Light, J.E. |author3=Allen, J.M. |author4=Kirchman, J.J. |journal=[[BMC Biology]] |volume=5 |issue=7 |doi=10.1186/1741-7007-5-7 |year=2007 |url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7007/5/7 |pmid=17343749 |pmc=1828715}}</ref> Unlike the genus ''Pediculus'', the divergence in ''Phthirus'' does not match the age of host divergence that likely occurred 7 million years ago. Reed et al. propose a ''Phthirus'' species host-switch around 3-4 million years ago. While it is difficult to determine if a parasite-host switch occurred in evolutionary history, this explanation is the most parsimonious (containing the fewest evolutionary changes).<ref name="Reed D.L. 2007"/>

Additionally, the DNA differences between head lice and body lice provide corroborating evidence that humans used clothing between 80,000 and 170,000 years ago, before leaving Africa.<ref name=Parry>{{cite web |last1=Parry |first1=Wynne |title=Lice Reveal Clues to Human Evolution |url=http://www.livescience.com/41028-lice-reveal-clues-to-human-evolution.html |publisher=LiveScience |accessdate=25 October 2015 |date=7 November 2013}}</ref> Human head and body lice occupy distinct ecological zones: head lice live and feed on the scalp, while body lice live on clothing and feed on the body. Because body lice require clothing to survive, the divergence of head and body lice from their common ancestor provides an estimate of the date of introduction of clothing in human evolutionary history.<ref name=Parry/><ref name="Kittler R. 2003">{{cite journal |author1=Kittler, R. |author2=Kayser, M. |author3=Stoneking, M. |year=2003 |title=Molecular Evolution of ''Pediculus humanus'' and the Origin of Clothing |journal=Current Biology |volume=13 |issue=16 |pages=1414–1417 |doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4 |pmid=12932325}}</ref>

The mitochondrial genome of the human species of body lice (''[[Pediculus humanus|Pediculus humanus humanus]]''), the head louse (''[[Pediculus humanus|Pediculus humanus capitis]]'') and the pubic louse (''[[Phthirus pubis]]'') fragmented into a number of minichromosomes, at least seven million years ago.<ref name=Shao2012>{{cite journal |author1=Shao, R. |author2=Zhu, X.Q. |author3=Barker, S.C. |author4=Herd, K. |year=2012 |title=Evolution of extensively fragmented mitochondrial genomes in the lice of humans |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=1088–1101 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evs088 }}</ref> Analysis of mitochondrial DNA in human body and hair lice reveals that greater genetic diversity existed in African than in non-African lice.<ref name="Kittler R. 2003"/><ref name=Light>{{cite journal |author1=Light, J.E. |author2=Allen, J.M. |author3=Long, L.M. |author4=Carter, T.E. |author5=Barrow, L. |author6=Suren, G. |author7=Raoult, D. |author8=Reed, D.L |year=2008 |title=Geographic distribution and origins of human head lice (''Pediculus humanus capitis'') based on mitochondrial data |journal=Journal of Parasitology |volume=94 |issue=6 |pages=1275–1281 |doi=10.1645/GE-1618.1 }}</ref> Human lice can also shed light on human migratory patterns in pre-history. The dominating theory of [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] regarding human migration is the [[Recent African origin of modern humans|Out of Africa Hypothesis]]. Genetic diversity accumulates over time, and mutations occur at a relatively constant rate. Because there is more genetic diversity in African lice, the lice and their human hosts must have existed in Africa before anywhere else.<ref name=Light/>

===Modern history===

[[File:Louse diagram, Micrographia, Robert Hooke, 1667.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|Drawing of a louse clinging to a human hair. [[Robert Hooke]], ''[[Micrographia]]'', 1667]]

Lice have been intimately associated with human society throughout history. In the [[Middle Ages]], they were essentially ubiquitous. At the death of [[Thomas Becket]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in 1270, it was recorded that "The vermin boiled over like water in a simmering cauldron, and the onlookers burst into alternate weeping and laughing".<ref name=Kowalski>{{cite journal |last1=Kowalski |first1=Todd J. |last2=Agger |first2=William A. |title=Art Supports New Plague Science |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |date=2009 |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=137–138 |doi=10.1086/595557 |url=http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/1/137.full}}</ref> A mediaeval treatment for lice was an [[ointment]] made from pork grease, [[incense]], [[lead]], and [[aloe]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Elliott |first=Lynne |title=Clothing in the Middle Ages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtq_WSpdo0gC&pg=PT29 |year=2004 |publisher=Crabtree |isbn=978-0-7787-1351-7 |page=29}}</ref>

[[Robert Hooke]]'s 1667 book, ''[[Micrographia|Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and Inquiries thereupon]]'', illustrated a human louse, drawn as seen down an early [[microscope]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hooke |first1=Robert |title=Microscopic view of a louse |url=http://prints.royalsociety.org/art/580831/microscopic-view-of-a-louse |publisher=The Royal Society |accessdate=17 October 2015}}</ref>

[[Margaret Cavendish]]'s satirical ''[[The Description of a New World, Called The Blazing-World]]'' (1668) has "Lice-men" as "mathematicians", investigating nature by trying to weigh the air like the real scientist [[Robert Boyle]].<ref name="Sarasohn2010">{{cite book |last=Sarasohn |first=Lisa T. |title=The Natural Philosophy of Margaret Cavendish: Reason and Fancy During the Scientific Revolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sE0XnNgF9ZoC&pg=PA167 |year=2010 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-9443-5|pages=165–167 |quote=The Bear-men were to be her Experimental Philosophers, the Bird-men her Astronomers, the Fly- Worm- and Fish-men her Natural Philosophers, the Ape-men her Chymists, the Satyrs her Galenick Physicians, the Fox-men her Politicians, the Spider- and Lice-men her Mathematicians, the Jackdaw- Magpie- and Parrot-men her Orators and Logicians, the Gyants her Architects, &c.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cavendish|first1=Margaret|title=The Description of a New World, Called the Blazing-World|date=1668|publisher=A. Maxwell|url=http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/newcastle/blazing/blazing.html}}</ref>

In 1935 the Harvard medical researcher [[Hans Zinsser]] wrote the book ''Rats, Lice and History'', alleging that both body and head lice transmit typhus between humans.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zinsser |first1=Hans |title=Rats, Lice and History |date=2007 |origyear=1935 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-0672-5}}</ref> Despite this, the modern view is that only the body louse can transmit the disease.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Altschuler |first1=Deborah Z.|title=Zinsser, Lice and History |url=http://www.headlice.org/faq/disease/zinsser.htm |publisher=HeadLice.org |accessdate=19 October 2015 |date=1990}}</ref>

[[File:Jan Siberechts "Cour de ferme" détail Scène d'épouillage.jpg|thumb|upright|Detail showing delousing from [[Jan Siberechts]]' painting ''Cour de ferme'' ("Farmyard"), 1662]]

Soldiers in the trenches of the [[First World War]] suffered severely from lice, and the [[typhus]] they carried. The Germans boasted that they had lice under effective control, but themselves suffered badly from lice in the [[Second World War]] on the Eastern Front, especially in the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]. "[[Delousing]]" became a grim [[euphemism]] for the extermination of Jews in [[concentration camp]]s such as [[Auschwitz]] under the Nazi regime.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Evans |first1=Richard J. |authorlink1=Richard J. Evans |title=The Great Unwashed |url=http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/the-great-unwashed |publisher=Gresham College |accessdate=17 October 2015}}</ref>

In the psychiatric disorder [[delusional parasitosis]], patients express a persistent irrational fear of animals such as lice and mites, imagining that they are continually infested and complaining of itching, with "an unshakable false belief that live organisms are present in the skin".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Weinstein |first1=Phillip |title=Entomophobia/Delusionary Parasitosis; Illusionary Parasitosis |url=http://medent.usyd.edu.au/fact/delpara.htm |publisher=University of Sydney Department of Medical Entomology |accessdate=17 October 2015}}</ref>

===In literature and folklore===
[[File:Mother_Louse,witch_Wellcome_L0000658.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Mother Louse, a notorious [[Alewife (trade)|Alewife]] in Oxford during the mid 18th century. Her crest includes 3 lice. Image by [[David Loggan]].<ref name="White1859">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l68ZhT2agbEC&pg=PA275|title=Notes & Queries|last=|first=|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1859|isbn=|location=|pages=275–276|author=William White}}</ref><ref>{{Cite paper|publisher=University of York|last=Pierce|first=Helen|title=Unseemly pictures: political graphic satire in England, c. 1600-c. 1650|date=2004|url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/9864/1/423697_vol1.pdf}}</ref>]]

[[James Joyce]]'s 1939 book ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' has the character Shem the Penman infested with "[[foxtrot]]ting fleas, the lieabed lice,&nbsp;... bats in his belfry".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Joyce |first1=James |title=Finnegans Wake |date=1939 |publisher=Faber |page=180}}</ref>

Clifford E. Trafzer's ''A [[Chemehuevi]] Song: The Resilience of a [[Southern Paiute]] Tribe'' retells the story of Sinawavi ([[Coyote]])'s love for Poowavi (Louse). Her eggs are sealed in a basket woven by her mother, who gives it to Coyote, instructing him not to open it before he reaches home. Hearing voices coming from it, however, Coyote opens the basket and the people, the world's first human beings, pour out of it in all directions.<ref name="Trafzer2015">{{cite book |last=Trafzer |first=Clifford E. |title=A Chemehuevi Song: The Resilience of a Southern Paiute Tribe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GA81CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |date=2015 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80582-5 |pages=22–25}}</ref>

The Irish songwriter John Lyons (b. 1934) wrote the popular<ref name=Clare/> song ''The Kilkenny Louse House''. The song contains the lines "Well we went up the stairs and we put out the light, Sure in less than five minutes, I had to show fight. For the fleas and the bugs they collected to march, And over me stomach they formed a great arch". It has been recorded by Christie Purcell (1952), Mary Delaney on ''From Puck to Appleby'' (2003), and the [[Dubliners]] on ''[[Double Dubliners]]'' (1972) among others.<ref name=Clare>{{cite web |last1=Carroll |first1=Jim |title=Songs of Clare: The Kilkenny Louse House |url=http://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/coclare/songs/cmc/the_kilkenny_louse_house_jlyons.htm |publisher=Clare Library |accessdate=19 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Scott |first1=Bruce |title=My Colleen by the Shore |url=http://www.veteran.co.uk/VT149CD%20Paginated%20booklet%20pages.pdf |publisher=Veteran |year=2013 |accessdate=25 October 2015}}</ref>

[[Robert Burns]] dedicated a poem to the Louse, inspired by witnessing one on a lady's bonnet in church: "Ye ugly, creepin, blastid wonner, Detested, shunn'd, by saint and sinner, How dare ye set your fit upon her, sae fine lady! Gae somewhere else, and seek your dinner on some poor body." [[John Milton]] in ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' mentioned the biblical plague of lice visited upon pharaoh: "Frogs, lice, and flies must all his palace fill with loathed intrusion, and filled all the land." [[John Ray]] recorded a Scottish proverb, "Gie a beggar a bed and he'll repay you with a Louse."
In [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'', [[Thersites]] compares [[Menelaus]], brother of [[Agamemnon]], to a louse: "Ask me not what I would be, if I were not Thersites; for I care not to be the louse of a lazar, so I were not Menelaus."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Insect Life in the Poetry and Drama of England: With Special Reference to Poetry |last=Twinn |first=Cecil Raymond |publisher=University of Ottawa (PhD Thesis) |year=1942 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10393/21088}}</ref>

== Ayrıca bakınız ==
*[[Haşere]]

== Kaynakça ==
{{Kaynakça|2}}

== Dış bağlantılar ==
{{commons category|Phthiraptera}}
{{wikispecies|Phthiraptera}}
{{Wiktionary|bit}}
*[http://npic.orst.edu/pest/lice.html Ulusal Pestisit Bilgi Merkezi - Bit Anlama ve Kontrolü] {{en}}
*[[Florida Üniversitesi]]/Gıda ve Tarım Bilimleri Enstitüsü Seçkin Canlılar Web sitesinde [http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/urban/human_lice.htm vücut ve baş biti] {{en}}
*[[Florida Üniversitesi]]/Gıda ve Tarım Bilimleri Enstitüsü Seçkin Canlılar Web sitesinde [http://entomology.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/urban/crab_louse.htm kasık biti] {{en}}
*[http://www.metapathogen.com/lice/phumanus/ ''Pediculus humanus capitis'' MtaPathogen'de baş biti olayları, mitler, yaşam döngüsü] {{en}}
*İngilizce Vikikitap'ta [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Parasitic_Insects,_Mites_and_Ticks:_Genera_of_Medical_and_Veterinary_Importance/Sucking_lice Parazit Böcekler, Böcekçikler ve Keneler: Tıp Genetiği ve Veterinerlerin Önemi/Emici bitler]
{{İnsan biti}}

[[Kategori:Bitler| ]]

Sayfanın 18.28, 23 Kasım 2016 tarihindeki hâli

Başlığın diğer anlamları için Bit sayfasına bakınız.
Phthiraptera
Biyolojik sınıflandırma
Âlem: Hayvanlar
Şube: Eklem bacaklılar
Alt bölüm: Anoplura

Rhyncophthirina
Ischnocera
Amblycera

Sınıf: Böcekler
Alt sınıf: Kanatlı böcek
Üst takım: Ekzopterigot
Takım: Phthiraptera
İnfra takım: Gelişmiş böcek
Haeckel, 1896

Bit (çoğul: bitler) yaklaşık olarak Phthiraptera takımından, 5.000 türü bulunan kanatsız böceklerdir. Bitler tek delikliler, pangolinler, yarasalar ve memeli deniz hayvanları dışındaki her tür kuşlar ve memelilerde yaşayabilen sıcakkanlı zorunlu parazitlerdir. Bitler tifüs gibi hastalıkların taşıyıcısıdırlar.

Bitler ev sahibinin tüyleri ya da kıllar arasında yaşarlar ve cilt üzerinde çiğneyerek beslenirler. Bitler ev sahibinin cildini emerek deler ve ortaya çıkan kan ile diğer salgıları, artıkları yiyerek beslenirler. Genellikle bütün hayatlarını tek bir ev sahibesi üzerinde geçirirler ve sirke adıyla da bilinen bit yumurtalarını kıllara veya tüylere yapıştırırlar. Yumurtaların içindeki nimfa tamamen yetişkin olmadan önce üç defa tüy dökerler ki, tüm bu süreç yaklaşık olarak dört hafta sürer.

İnsanlar üzerinde konaklayabilen üç tür bit bulunmaktadır. Bunlar baş biti, vücut biti ve kasık bitidir. Vücut biti bilinen herhangi bir böceğin en küçük genomuna sahiptir. Bu nedenle model canlı olarak sıkça kullanılmış ve çokça araştırılmıştır.

Bitler en azından Orta Çağa kadar tüm insan topluluklarında bulunmuştur. Halk hikayelerinde, The Kilkenny Louse House gibi şarkılarda ve James Joyce'un Finnegans Wake adlı romanında bile söz edilmiştir. Genellikle bu tür alanlarda kendilerine psikiyatrik bozukluk olan sanrısal parazitozunda yer bulmuşlardır. Bit, mikroskobinin ilk konularından biriydi ve Robert Hooke'un 1665 yılında yayımladığı Micrographia kitabında böcekten söz edilmişti.

Sınıflandırma

Phthiraptera sınıfı üyeleri, sıcakkanlı omurgalı hayvanlar üzerindeki parazitliliği ve tek bir ventral sinir kavşağı oluşturmak için metatorasik gangliyonlarının, karınsal gangliyonları ile kombinasyonu da dahil olmak üzere anlaşılır bir şekilde monofiletik gruplandırılmıştır. [1] Sıralamada geleneksel olarak emici bitler (Anoplura) ve çiğneyici bitler (Mallophaga) olarak iki bölüme ayrılmışlardır. Bununla birlikte en son sınıflandırmalarda Mallophaga'nın parafiletik olduğunu ve şu anda dör alt sınıfının daha bulunduğunu göstermektedir:[2]

  • Anoplura: sadece memelilerde meydana gelen emici bit
  • Rhynchophthirina: yaban domuzları ve fillerdeki parazitler
  • Ischnocera: çoğunlukla çiğneyici bit ancak memelilerdeki bir parazit ailesi
  • Amblycera: çiğneyen bitin bir alt sınıfı ancak kuşlarda ve Güney Amerika ile Avustralya'daki memelilerde yaşarlar

4.000 türü kuşlardaki ve 800 türü ise memelilerdeki parazitler olmak üzere yaklaşık 5.000 türü tespit edilmiştir. Evcil hayvanlar ve kuşların bulunduğu tüm habitatlarda her kıtada bit bulunur. [2] Hatta Antarktik'teki penguenlerde bile 15 türü (Austrogonoides ve Nesiotinus cinsinde) tespit edilmiştir. [3]

Tanımlama

Emici bitler boyları 0,5 ila 5 mm (0,02 ila 0,20 inç) arasında değişen küçük, kanatsız böceklerdir. Dar başları ve oval düzleşmiş gövdeleri vardır. Hiçbirisinde ocelli (basit göz-pigment çukuru) yoktur ve bileşik gözleri ya küçük ya da eksiktir. Antenleri üç ila beş kısa bölüm halindedir ve başlarına geri çekilebilen ağız parçaları delme ile emmeye uyarlanmıştır. [4] Bağırsağının başlangıcında cibarial pompa olup, başın üst derisinin içine eklenen kaslar tarafından güçlendirilmektedir. Ağzının parçaları dişli bir hortumdan oluşmuştur ve bu hortumun içi keskin silindir şeklinde tükürük kanalı (ventral) ve bir beslenme kanalı (dorsal) olarak düzenlenmiştir. [5] Göğsünün bölümleri kaynaşmış, karın bölümleri ayrılmış ve altı bacağının her birinin ucunda büyük bir pençe vardır. [4]

Çiğneyici bitler de yassıdır ve uzunlukları 0,5 ila 6 mm (0,02 ila 0,24 inç) arasında değişmekte olup diğer tür bitlerden biraz daha büyük olabilirler. Vücut yapıları emici bitlere benzer ancak başları göğüslerinden daha kalındır ve tüm türlerde gözler bileşiktir. Hiçbir şekilde basit göz (ocelli) yoktur ve ağzının bölümleri çiğnemek için uyarlanmıştır. Duyargaları yani antenleri yine üç ila beş arasında bölümden oluşmakta olup Ischnocera alt sınıfında biraz daha ince Amblycera alt sınıfında ise çomak şeklinde biçimlidir. Bacaklar kısa ve sağlam olmakla birlikte bir ya da iki pençe ile son bulurlar. Bunların birçok türü her bir ev sahibi türe özgü olup onunla birlikte gelişmişlerdir. Genellikle kriptik (saklanma) olarak yaşadıkları ev sahiplerinin tüy ya da postunun rengine uyacak şekilde renklidirler.[4][6]

Biyoloji

Lice are divided into two groups: sucking lice, which obtain their nourishment from feeding on the sebaceous secretions and body fluids of their host; and chewing lice, which are scavengers, feeding on skin, fragments of feathers or hair, and debris found on the host's body. Most are found on only specific types of animals, and, in some cases, on only a particular part of the body; some animals are known to host up to fifteen different species, although one to three is typical for mammals, and two to six for birds. For example, in humans, different species of louse inhabit the scalp and pubic hair. Lice generally cannot survive for long if removed from their host.[7] Some species of chewing lice house symbiotic bacteria in bacteriocytes in their bodies. These may assist in digestion because if the insect is deprived of them, it will die. If their host dies, lice can opportunistically use phoresis to hitch a ride on a fly and attempt to find a new host.[8]

A louse's color varies from pale beige to dark gray; however, if feeding on blood, it may become considerably darker. Female lice are usually more common than males, and some species are parthenogenetic, with young developing from unfertilized eggs. A louse's egg is commonly called a nit. Many lice attach their eggs to their hosts' hair with specialized saliva; the saliva/hair bond is very difficult to sever without specialized products. Lice inhabiting birds, however, may simply leave their eggs in parts of the body inaccessible to preening, such as the interior of feather shafts. Living louse eggs tend to be pale whitish, whereas dead louse eggs are yellower.[7]

Lice are exopterygotes, being born as miniature versions of the adult, known as nymphs. The young moult three times before reaching the final adult form, usually within a month after hatching.[7]

Ecology

The average number of lice per host tends to be higher in large-bodied bird species than in small ones.[9] Lice have an aggregated distribution across bird individuals, i.e. most lice live on a few birds, while most birds are relatively free of lice. This pattern is more pronounced in territorial than in colonial—more social—bird species.[10] Host organisms that dive under water to feed on aquatic prey harbor fewer taxa of lice.[11][12] Bird taxa that are capable of exerting stronger antiparasitic defense—such as stronger T cell immune response or larger uropygial glands—harbor more taxa of Amblyceran lice than others.[13][14] Reductions in the size of host populations may cause a long-lasting reduction of louse taxonomic richness,[15] for example, birds introduced into New Zealand host fewer species of lice there than in Europe.[16][17] Louse sex ratios are more balanced in more social hosts and more female-biased in less social hosts, presumably due to the stronger isolation among louse subpopulations (living on separate birds) in the latter case.[18] The extinction of a species results in the extinction of its host-specific lice. Host-switching is a random event that would seem very rarely likely to be successful, but speciation has occurred over evolutionary time-scales so it must be successfully accomplished sometimes.[15]

Lice may reduce host life expectancy if the infestation is heavy,[19] but most seem to have little effect on their host. The habit of dust bathing in domestic hens is probably an attempt by the birds to rid themselves of lice.[4] Lice may transmit microbial diseases and helminth parasites,[20] but most individuals spend their whole life cycle on a single host and are only able to transfer to a new host opportunistically.[4] Ischnoceran lice may reduce the thermoregulation effect of the plumage; thus heavily infested birds lose more heat than others.[21] Lice infestation is a disadvantage in the context of sexual rivalry.[22][23]

The human body louse Pediculus humanus humanus had its genome sequenced in 2010, and at that time it had the smallest insect genome known.[24] This louse can transmit certain diseases while the human head louse (P. h. capitis), to which it is closely related, cannot. With their simple life history and small genomes, the pair make ideal model organisms to study the molecular mechanisms behind the transmission of pathogens and vector competence.[25] In 2015 there were 5 cases of louse-borne relapsing fever being transmitted to locals reported in Italy.[26]

Interaction with humans

Prehistory

information about human infestation için Pediculosis sayfasına bakınız. information on treatment için Treatment of human head lice sayfasına bakınız.
A louse (nit) comb

Humans host three different kinds of lice: head lice, body lice, and pubic lice. Lice infestations can be controlled with lice combs, and medicated shampoos or washes.[27]

Lice have been the subject of significant DNA research in the 2000s that led to discoveries on human evolution. The three species of sucking lice that parasitize human beings belong to two genera, Pediculus and Phthirus: head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis), body lice (Pediculus humanus corporis), and pubic lice (Phthirus pubis). Human head and body lice (genus Pediculus) share a common ancestor with chimpanzee lice, while pubic lice (genus Phthirus) share a common ancestor with gorilla lice. Using phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analysis, Reed et al. hypothesized that Pediculus and Phthirus are sister taxa and monophyletic.[28] In other words, the two genera descended from the same common ancestor. The age of divergence between Pediculus and its common ancestor is estimated to be 6-7 million years ago, which matches the age predicted by chimpanzee-hominid divergence.[28] Because parasites rely on their hosts, host-parasite cospeciation events are likely.

For example, genetic evidence suggests that our human ancestors acquired pubic lice from gorillas approximately 3-4 million years ago.[28] Unlike the genus Pediculus, the divergence in Phthirus does not match the age of host divergence that likely occurred 7 million years ago. Reed et al. propose a Phthirus species host-switch around 3-4 million years ago. While it is difficult to determine if a parasite-host switch occurred in evolutionary history, this explanation is the most parsimonious (containing the fewest evolutionary changes).[28]

Additionally, the DNA differences between head lice and body lice provide corroborating evidence that humans used clothing between 80,000 and 170,000 years ago, before leaving Africa.[29] Human head and body lice occupy distinct ecological zones: head lice live and feed on the scalp, while body lice live on clothing and feed on the body. Because body lice require clothing to survive, the divergence of head and body lice from their common ancestor provides an estimate of the date of introduction of clothing in human evolutionary history.[29][30]

The mitochondrial genome of the human species of body lice (Pediculus humanus humanus), the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis) and the pubic louse (Phthirus pubis) fragmented into a number of minichromosomes, at least seven million years ago.[31] Analysis of mitochondrial DNA in human body and hair lice reveals that greater genetic diversity existed in African than in non-African lice.[30][32] Human lice can also shed light on human migratory patterns in pre-history. The dominating theory of anthropologists regarding human migration is the Out of Africa Hypothesis. Genetic diversity accumulates over time, and mutations occur at a relatively constant rate. Because there is more genetic diversity in African lice, the lice and their human hosts must have existed in Africa before anywhere else.[32]

Modern history

Drawing of a louse clinging to a human hair. Robert Hooke, Micrographia, 1667

Lice have been intimately associated with human society throughout history. In the Middle Ages, they were essentially ubiquitous. At the death of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury in 1270, it was recorded that "The vermin boiled over like water in a simmering cauldron, and the onlookers burst into alternate weeping and laughing".[33] A mediaeval treatment for lice was an ointment made from pork grease, incense, lead, and aloe.[34]

Robert Hooke's 1667 book, Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and Inquiries thereupon, illustrated a human louse, drawn as seen down an early microscope.[35]

Margaret Cavendish's satirical The Description of a New World, Called The Blazing-World (1668) has "Lice-men" as "mathematicians", investigating nature by trying to weigh the air like the real scientist Robert Boyle.[36][37]

In 1935 the Harvard medical researcher Hans Zinsser wrote the book Rats, Lice and History, alleging that both body and head lice transmit typhus between humans.[38] Despite this, the modern view is that only the body louse can transmit the disease.[39]

Detail showing delousing from Jan Siberechts' painting Cour de ferme ("Farmyard"), 1662

Soldiers in the trenches of the First World War suffered severely from lice, and the typhus they carried. The Germans boasted that they had lice under effective control, but themselves suffered badly from lice in the Second World War on the Eastern Front, especially in the Battle of Stalingrad. "Delousing" became a grim euphemism for the extermination of Jews in concentration camps such as Auschwitz under the Nazi regime.[40]

In the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis, patients express a persistent irrational fear of animals such as lice and mites, imagining that they are continually infested and complaining of itching, with "an unshakable false belief that live organisms are present in the skin".[41]

In literature and folklore

Mother Louse, a notorious Alewife in Oxford during the mid 18th century. Her crest includes 3 lice. Image by David Loggan.[42][43]

James Joyce's 1939 book Finnegans Wake has the character Shem the Penman infested with "foxtrotting fleas, the lieabed lice, ... bats in his belfry".[44]

Clifford E. Trafzer's A Chemehuevi Song: The Resilience of a Southern Paiute Tribe retells the story of Sinawavi (Coyote)'s love for Poowavi (Louse). Her eggs are sealed in a basket woven by her mother, who gives it to Coyote, instructing him not to open it before he reaches home. Hearing voices coming from it, however, Coyote opens the basket and the people, the world's first human beings, pour out of it in all directions.[45]

The Irish songwriter John Lyons (b. 1934) wrote the popular[46] song The Kilkenny Louse House. The song contains the lines "Well we went up the stairs and we put out the light, Sure in less than five minutes, I had to show fight. For the fleas and the bugs they collected to march, And over me stomach they formed a great arch". It has been recorded by Christie Purcell (1952), Mary Delaney on From Puck to Appleby (2003), and the Dubliners on Double Dubliners (1972) among others.[46][47]

Robert Burns dedicated a poem to the Louse, inspired by witnessing one on a lady's bonnet in church: "Ye ugly, creepin, blastid wonner, Detested, shunn'd, by saint and sinner, How dare ye set your fit upon her, sae fine lady! Gae somewhere else, and seek your dinner on some poor body." John Milton in Paradise Lost mentioned the biblical plague of lice visited upon pharaoh: "Frogs, lice, and flies must all his palace fill with loathed intrusion, and filled all the land." John Ray recorded a Scottish proverb, "Gie a beggar a bed and he'll repay you with a Louse." In Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida, Thersites compares Menelaus, brother of Agamemnon, to a louse: "Ask me not what I would be, if I were not Thersites; for I care not to be the louse of a lazar, so I were not Menelaus."[48]

Ayrıca bakınız

Kaynakça

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